Évariste Galois died in a duel at 20, the night after writing the foundations of group theory in a single letter

Heliocentrism

Galileo Galilei was placed under house arrest for nine years for defending heliocentrism

Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: 'Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent.'

Grigori Perelman

Grigori Perelman solved the Poincaré conjecture

Richard Feynman's diagrams turned quantum field theory calculations from intractable algebra into picture-bookkeeping

Feynman diagrams simplified quantum field theory from complex algebra to visual bookkeeping

Emmy Noether

Emmy Noether proved Noether's theorem connecting symmetry and conservation laws

Chemistry: A Volatile History

52! ≈ 8 × 10^67 possible arrangements of a deck of cards