What the Carnot efficiency limit is — η = 1 - T_cold/T_hot, no heat engine can be more efficient

What the cosmological constant problem is — quantum field theory predicts vacuum energy 10^120 times too large

Quantum field theory overestimates vacuum energy by 10^120 times, causing the cosmological constant problem

What the second law of thermodynamics says — entropy of an isolated system never decreases

Entropy in an isolated system always increases or remains constant

What Landauer's principle resolves — erasing one bit of information dissipates at least kT ln 2 of energy

Landauer's principle states energy dissipation during bit erasure is kT ln(2)

What asymptotic freedom means — quarks interact more weakly at higher energies, earning the 2004 Nobel Prize

Higher energies reduce quark-gluon interactions, leading to asymptotic freedom

What Hawking radiation implies — black holes have a temperature and slowly evaporate over time

Hawking radiation suggests black holes emit thermal radiation, gradually diminishing

What the compute-optimal training ratio is: roughly 20 tokens per parameter

Optimal training ratio: Approximately 20 tokens/parameter