What the principle of sufficient reason says — everything must have a reason or cause

What Nagarjuna's concept of śūnyatā (emptiness) means — all things lack inherent, independent existence

Śūnyatā posits that all phenomena are empty of inherent existence, interdependently arising

What the cosmological argument for God claims — the chain of causes must have a first cause

The cosmological argument posits an uncaused first cause, often identified as God

Why logical positivism collapsed — the verification principle couldn't verify itself

The self-referential paradox of the verification principle undermined logical positivism's foundational premise

What the private language argument shows — there can be no language only one person could understand

The private language argument demonstrates that a language understood by only one person lacks communicative meaning

What Kant's categorical imperative says — act only by rules you could universalize

Act according to maxims that could be willed as universal laws

What epiphenomenalism claims — consciousness exists but has no causal power over the physical

Epiphenomenalism: Consciousness is a byproduct, causally inert to physical processes