What the underdetermination of theory by data means — evidence is always compatible with multiple theories

What instrumentalism claims — theories are useful tools, not descriptions of unobservable reality

Instrumentalism views theories as practical tools, not literal depictions of unobservable phenomena

What Popper's falsifiability criterion says — a theory is scientific only if it can be proven wrong

Popper's criterion: A theory is scientific if it can be falsified

What the cosmological argument for God claims — the chain of causes must have a first cause

The cosmological argument posits an uncaused first cause, often identified as God

What integrated information theory (IIT) proposes — consciousness is identical to integrated information (Φ)

IIT posits consciousness equals integrated information (Φ)

What nominalism claims — only particular things exist, universals are just names

Nominalism posits that only individual objects exist, universals are mere linguistic constructs

What the problem of universals asks — do abstract properties (redness, roundness) exist independently

Universals question: Do abstract properties like redness exist independently of particular objects?